c Typical voltage profile of galvanostatic zinc plating. b Free-energy schematic during zinc nucleation. g GITT curves and the corresponding zinc ions coefficients and h cycling performance of V 6O 13, V 2O 5, and VO 2. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society. f Crystal structure of monoclinic V 6O 13. Copyright © 2019, American Chemical Society. e Long-term cycling performance of VO 2(D) at 10 A g −1, inset: FESEM image (left) and schematic diagram of crystal structure of VO 2(D). d Evolution in lattice parameter of the VO 2(B) cathode during discharging/charging steps. D1 and C1 (green), D2 and C2 (blue), and D3 and C3 (orange). c In situ XRD patterns of VO 2(B) cathode obtained during the first cycle at 0.1 A g −1, involving three stages. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society. Copyright © 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry h Zn-intercalated structures and relative energies of cw-MnO 2. g Rate performance of (PANI)-intercalated MnO 2 cathode in ZIBs. f Schematic illustration of expanded intercalated structure of polyaniline (PANI)-intercalated MnO 2 nanolayers. e Mechanism of the Mn self-catalysis (Route 1) and cobalt-induced catalysis (Route 2). d The battery reaction mechanism schematic diagram of α-MnO 2 and Ca 2MnO 4 (CMO). Copyright © 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. c Primitive cell structures and partial density of states of pure Mn 3O 4 and Ni-doped samples (NiMn 5O 8, Ni 2Mn 4O 8, and Ni 3Mn 3O 8). g Ex situ Ag 3d X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra at different states and h energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) element mapping images at fully discharged state of Ag 0.4V 2O 5 cathode. f Schematic diagram of displacement/intercalation mechanism in Ag 0.4V 2O 5 cathode. e Nyquist plot and equivalent-circuit fitting curves of NaCaVO and dry-NaCaVO at OCV. d Possible migration pathways of Zn 2+ in NaCaVO viewed along the b-axis.
c Calculated Zn 2+ diffusion barriers for paths in V 6O 13 with/without the presence of water. b Scheme showing the intercalation of H 2O molecules and the Zn 2+ insertion/extraction process in NH 4V 4O 10 during cycling. Finally, we provide our perspectives, critical analysis, and insights on the remaining challenges and future directions for development of aqueous ZIBs. Furthermore, the progress of mechanistic characterization techniques and theoretical simulation methods used for ZIBs is timely reviewed. Subsequently, the fundamental chemical properties, remaining challenges, and improvement strategies of both Zn metal and non-Zn anodes are presented to thoroughly explore the energy storage chemistry of ZIBs and pursue the development of high-performance ZIBs. Then, a detailed summary of the representative cathode materials and corresponding comparative discussion is provided with typical cases encompassing structural features, electrochemical properties, existing drawbacks, and feasible remedies. First, this review presents a comprehensive understanding of the cathode charge storage chemistry, probes the existing deficiencies in mechanism verification, and analyzes contradictions between the experimental results and proposed mechanisms. Here, we critically review and assess the energy storage chemistries of aqueous ZIBs for both cathodes and anodes.
However, many fundamental issues still hinder the development of aqueous ZIBs. Extensive efforts have been devoted to exploring high-performance cathodes and stable anodes. Rechargeable aqueous zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) have resurged in large-scale energy storage applications due to their intrinsic safety, affordability, competitive electrochemical performance, and environmental friendliness.
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